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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China
The artificial intelligence market in the People’s Republic of China is a rapidly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms stressing science and technology as the country’s main productive force.
The initial stages of China’s AI development were sluggish and encountered substantial challenges due to lack of resources and skill. At the starting China lagged a lot of Western countries in terms of AI advancement. A bulk of the research was led by scientists who had actually received college abroad. [1]
Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has steadily established a nationwide program for synthetic intelligence development and emerged as one of the leading nations in synthetic research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to end up being a global AI leader by 2030. [3]
The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI teams” including fifteen China-based business, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business should lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s fast AI development has substantially affected Chinese society in lots of locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the top industries that would be the most affected by further AI deployment.
The economic sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are few current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade restrictions meant to limit China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]
Concerns have actually been raised about the impacts of the Chinese federal government’s censorship regime on the advancement of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]
History
The research study and advancement of artificial intelligence in China started in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and innovation for China’s economic development. [3]
Late 1970s to early 2010s
Artificial intelligence research study and development did not begin up until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers launched AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was hard so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more supplying federal government funds for research tasks. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research publication on artificial intelligence was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have belonged to China’s nationwide innovation plan. [9]
Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has actually further expanded its research and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study projects has actually significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy priority for the development of artificial intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, expert system was also pointed out in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]
In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At exact same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese achievements in the field of expert system. The very first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion corresponded with the Chinese federal government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial milestone in China’s development of expert system. [12]
Late 2010s to early 2020s
The State Council of China issued “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the development of expert system. Specifically, the strategy described AI as a strategic innovation that has actually become a “focus of worldwide competitors”. [14]:2 The file urged significant financial investment in a number of strategic areas connected to AI and required close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between financial and military ends is an important component to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a strategic level. [16] The very same year saw the emergence of multiple application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study lab in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]
In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, introduced its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]
In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council mentioned the need for enormous skill acquisition, theoretical and practical developments, as well as public and personal investments. [14] Some of the mentioned motivations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI strategy consist of the potential of artificial intelligence for industrial improvement, better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] Since completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]
In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to various fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research study. With the introduction of large language designs (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese scientists started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]
The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence introduced China’s very first big scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283
In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively issued the policies concerning deepfakes, which ended up being effective in January 2023. [26]
In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]
In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on standard generative AI services security requirements, including requirements for information collection and design training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96
Also in October 2023, the Chinese government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and intends to construct AI policy discussion with establishing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed concern over AI safety dangers, including abuse of information or the usage of AI by terrorists. [28]:93
In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began using news anchors created with generative artificial intelligence to deliver phony news clips. [18]
In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which means to incorporate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95
In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it presented a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]
According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The fourth and fifth largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been authorized by the Chinese federal government. [33]
Since 2024, numerous Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually released AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]
Chronology of significant AI-related policies
Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs
National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Government objectives
According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI technology will be important to the future of worldwide military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council aims for China to make fundamental contributions to standard AI theory and to solidify its place as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and financial change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the international leader in the development of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]
According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to meld state preparation and control while some operational versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, producing asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]
The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a leading research study top priority and ranks AI first among “frontier industries” that the Chinese government intends to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector often supported by China’s federal government assistance funds. [37]:167
Research and advancement
Chinese public AI funding mainly focused on innovative and applied research study. [38] The federal government financing likewise supported numerous AI R&D in the economic sector through venture capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic agency research study revealed that, while China is enormously investing in all aspects of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]
According to national guidance on developing China’s high-tech industrial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and local commercial advancement and community. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, greatly concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282
In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competition for computer system vision systems. [41] A lot of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]
Interdisciplinary cooperations play a necessary function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate collaboration, public-private collaborations, and worldwide cooperations and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall number of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]
As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI scientists had completed their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101
According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and imposing commitments on AI business, the overall technique to its policy is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]
Population
China’s large population produces an enormous quantity of accessible data for business and researchers, which uses an essential advantage in the race of big data. As of 2024 [update], China has the world’s biggest number of internet users, producing huge quantities of data for machine learning and AI applications. [46]:18
Facial acknowledgment
Facial recognition is among the most widely used AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of data from its locals helps additional train and broaden AI abilities. China’s market is not just favorable and important for corporations to more AI R&D however likewise uses significant financial prospective drawing in both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic development of the details and interaction technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets in current years are two examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]
Censorship and content controls
In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft procedures stating that tech companies will be obligated to make sure AI-generated content upholds the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates intellectual residential or commercial property rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal duty for training information and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material might not “incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language design to the public, companies need to look for approval from the CAC to license that the model refuses to address certain questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be declined. [52]
In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that preserves libraries consisting of training information sets frequently utilized for large language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides regional companies with training data that CCP leaders think about permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]
Microsoft has cautioned that the Chinese government utilizes generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]
The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has been reported to refuse to address concerns relating to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]
Impact
Economic impact
Most firms [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s economic influence on China’s long-lasting financial development. In the past, conventional markets in China have actually battled with the boost in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, operational expenses are anticipated to reduce while an increase in effectiveness creates earnings growth. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to conquer adoption barriers including expenses and absence of properly trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI advancement since of increasing needs for workers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial development is concentrated in coastal regions rather than inland. [61]
An influential choice by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98
Military effect
China seeks to develop a “first-rate” military by “intelligentization” with a specific focus on making use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is researching numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing lorries. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial lorries at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards revealed a computer system simulation of a similar swarm development finding and ruining a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and fears of a widening “generational space” in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China aims to use AI for exploiting big chests of intelligence, generating a common operating picture, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) technique, which seeks to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]
Twelve categories of military applications of AI have been determined: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, choice assistance, software application, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]
China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of boundaries exist between Chinese industrial business, university research study laboratories, the military, and the main government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of assisting AI development concerns and accessing technology that was ostensibly established for civilian purposes. To further enhance these ties the Chinese federal government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI technology from industrial business and research organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower expenses of information labeling to develop the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the potential to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12
China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily appropriate AI applications, possibly giving it lawful access to U.S. innovation and intellectual home. [69] Chinese venture capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from buying U.S. innovation companies, due to U.S. national security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, including “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy.” [71] [72]
In 2024, scientists from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its model usage prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]
Academia
Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, specifically considering that China faces difficulties in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have actually been operating in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the exact same percentage of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research products. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the number of research study papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China particularly wish to address military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently established the first kids’s curriculum in military AI on the planet. [76]
In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]
Ethical issues
For the previous years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with particular emphasis on user defense, data privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will stay in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence published the Beijing AI principles requiring essential needs in long-term research study and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]
Data security has actually been the most typical subject in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many nationwide federal governments have established legislation resolving information personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to address brand-new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [original research study?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative framework categorizing all kinds of information collection and storage in China. [81] This indicates all tech business in China are needed to classify their data into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and manage information transfers to other celebrations. [81]
Judicial system
In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts associated with ecommerce and internet-related intellectual residential or commercial property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI assesses the proof provided and applies relevant legal requirements. [82]:124
Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach objective decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology business may erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are intentional objectives of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]
Leading companies
Leading AI-centric business and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial recognition, sound recognition and drone technologies. [87]
China’s federal government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually sought to encourage personal tech business in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281
In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language design Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]
New leading AI startups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has also been promoted as a leading startup. [89]
Assessment
Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s commitment to international AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically ingrained reasons for China’s anxiety towards securing a global technological supremacy – China missed both commercial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to take advantage of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital innovation consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]
A short article released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese government officials showed extremely eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and international security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking community to similarly focus on cultivating competence and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “financing, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale needed change.” [35] A short article in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have unrivaled resources and huge untapped capacity, but the West has world-leading competence and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s progress, it would be smart for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]
The Chinese government’s censorship program has stunted the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]
In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the advancement of AI develops challenges for holistic national security, including the dangers that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing effects on international relations. [28]:49
Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to greater oppression of employees and more major social problems. [28]:90 Gao points out how the development of AI has increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing greater capital accumulation and political power in less economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state must be the primary accountable star in the location of generative AI (producing brand-new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military use of AI threats escalating military competition between nations and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country but will have spillover impacts. [28]:91
Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential danger from expert system have happened. [92]
Public polling
The Chinese public is normally positive relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study conducted across 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI outweigh the risks, the greatest of any nation in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university trainees found that 80% concurred or highly concurred that AI will do more great than damage for society, and 31% thought it needs to be controlled by the federal government. [93]
Human rights
The widely utilized AI facial recognition has raised issues. [94] According to The New York Times, implementation of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang area to detect Uyghurs is “the very first recognized example of a federal government deliberately utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually discovered that in China, areas experiencing greater rates of discontent are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, particularly by local community police departments. [97] [98]
Artificial intelligence.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of synthetic intelligence business
Regulation of artificial intelligence
References
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Further reading
Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.